Katrin Burkart, Kate Causey, Aaron J Cohen, Sarah S Wozniak, Devashri Digvijay Salvi, Cristiana Abbafati, Victor Adekanmbi, Jose C Adsuar, Keivan Ahmadi, Fares Alahdab, Ziyad Al-Aly, Vahid Alipour, Nelson Alvis-Guzman, Adeladza Kofi Amegah, Catalina Liliana Andrei, Tudorel Andrei, Fereshteh Ansari, Jalal Arabloo, Olatunde Aremu, Timur Aripov, Ebrahim Babaee, MacIej Banach, Anthony Barnett, Till Winfried Bärnighausen, Neeraj Bedi, Masoud Behzadifar, Yannick Béjot, Derrick A Bennett, Isabela M Bensenor, Robert S Bernstein, Krittika Bhattacharyya, Ali Bijani, Antonio Biondi, Somayeh Bohlouli, Susanne Breitner, Hermann Brenner, Zahid A Butt, Luis Alberto Cámera, Carlos Cantu-Brito, Felix Carvalho, Ester Cerin, Vijay Kumar Chattu, Bal Govind Chauhan, Jee-Young Jasmine Choi, Dinh-Toi Chu, Xiaochen Dai, Lalit Dandona, Rakhi Dandona, Ahmad Daryani, Kairat Davletov, Barbora De Courten, Feleke Mekonnen Demeke, Edgar Denova-Gutiérrez, Samath Dhamminda Dharmaratne, Meghnath Dhimal, Daniel Diaz, Shirin Djalalinia, Bruce B Duncan, Maysaa El Sayed Zaki, Sharareh Eskandarieh, Mohammad Fareed, Farshad Farzadfar, Nazir Fattahi, Mehdi Fazlzadeh, Eduarda Fernandes, Irina Filip, Florian Fischer, Nataliya A Foigt, Marisa Freitas, Ahmad Ghashghaee, Paramjit Singh Gill, Ibrahim Abdelmageed Ginawi, Sameer Vali Gopalani, Yuming Guo, Rajat Das Gupta, Tesfa Dejenie Habtewold, Randah R Hamadeh, Samer Hamidi, Graeme J Hankey, Edris Hasanpoor, Hamid Yimam Hassen, Simon I Hay, Behzad Heibati, Michael K Hole, Naznin Hossain, Mowafa Househ, Seyed Sina Naghibi Irvani, Jalil Jaafari, Mihajlo Jakovljevic, Ravi Prakash Jha, Jost B Jonas, Jacek Jerzy Jozwiak, Amir Kasaeian, Neda Kaydi, Yousef Saleh Khader, Morteza Abdullatif Khafaie, Ejaz Ahmad Khan, Junaid Khan, Md Nuruzzaman Khan, Khaled Khatab, Amir M Khater, Yun Jin Kim, Ruth W Kimokoti, Adnan Kisa, Mika Kivimäki, Luke D Knibbs, Soewarta Kosen, Parvaiz A Koul, Ai Koyanagi, Barthelemy Kuate Defo, Nuworza Kugbey, Paolo Lauriola, Paul H Lee, Mostafa Leili, Sonia Lewycka, Shanshan Li, Lee-Ling Lim, Shai Linn, Yong Liu, Stefan Lorkowski, Phetole Walter Mahasha, Narayan B Mahotra, Azeem Majeed, Afshin Maleki, Reza Malekzadeh, Abdullah A Mamun, Navid Manafi, Santi Martini, Birhanu Geta Meharie, Ritesh G Menezes, Tomislav Mestrovic, Bartosz Miazgowski, Tomasz Miazgowski, Ted R Miller, G.K. Mini, Andreea Mirica, Erkin M Mirrakhimov, Bahram Mohajer, Shafiu Mohammed, Viswanathan Mohan, Ali H Mokdad, Lorenzo Monasta, Paula Moraga, Shane Douglas Morrison, Ulrich Otto Mueller, Satinath Mukhopadhyay, Ghulam Mustafa, Saravanan Muthupandian, Gurudatta Naik, Vinay Nangia, Duduzile Edith Ndwandwe, Ruxandra Irina Negoi, Dina Nur Anggraini Ningrum, Jean Jacques Noubiap, Felix Akpojene Ogbo, Andrew T Olagunju, Obinna E Onwujekwe, Alberto Ortiz, Mayowa O Owolabi, P.A. Mahesh, Songhomitra Panda-Jonas, Eun-Kee Park, Fatemeh Pashazadeh Kan, Meghdad Pirsaheb, Maarten J Postma, Hadi Pourjafar, Amir Radfar, Alireza Rafiei, Fakher Rahim, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar, Muhammad Aziz Rahman, Rajesh Kumar Rai, Chhabi Lal Ranabhat, Samira Raoofi, Lal Rawal, Andre M N Renzaho, Aziz Rezapour, Daniela Ribeiro, Leonardo Roever, Luca Ronfani, Siamak Sabour, Basema Saddik, Ehsan Sadeghi, Sahar Saeedi Moghaddam, Amirhossein Sahebkar, Mohammad Ali Sahraian, Hamideh Salimzadeh, Sundeep Santosh Salvi, Abdallah M Samy, Juan Sanabria, Rodrigo Sarmiento-Suárez, Thirunavukkarasu Sathish, Maria Inês Schmidt, Aletta Elisabeth Schutte, Sadaf G Sepanlou, Masood Ali Shaikh, Kiomars Sharafi, Aziz Sheikh, Mika Shigematsu, Rahman Shiri, Reza Shirkoohi, Kerem Shuval, Ireneous N Soyiri, Rafael Tabarés-Seisdedos, Yonatal Mesfin Tefera, Arash Tehrani-Banihashemi, Mohamad-Hani Temsah, Kavumpurathu Raman Thankappan, Roman Topor-Madry, Lorainne Tudor Car, Irfan Ullah, Marco Vacante, Pascual R Valdez, Tommi Juhani Vasankari, Francesco S Violante, Yasir Waheed, Charles D A Wolfe, Tomohide Yamada, Naohiro Yonemoto, Chuanhua Yu, Sojib Bin Zaman, Yunquan Zhang, Sanjay Zodpey, Stephen S Lim, Jeffrey D Stanaway, Michael Brauer
Background: Experimental and epidemiological studies indicate an association between exposure to particulate matter (PM) air pollution and increased risk of type 2 diabetes. In view of the high and increasing prevalence of diabetes, we aimed to quantify the burden of type 2 diabetes attributable to PM2·5 originating from ambient and household air pollution. Methods: We systematically compiled all relevant cohort and case-control studies assessing the effect of exposure to household and ambient fine particulate matter (PM2·5) air pollution on type 2 diabetes incidence and mortality. We derived an exposure–response curve from the extracted relative risk estimates using the MR-BRT (meta-regression—Bayesian, regularised, trimmed) tool. The estimated curve was linked to ambient and household PM2·5 exposures from the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study 2019, and estimates of the attributable burden (population attributable fractions and rates per 100 000 population of deaths and disability-adjusted life-years) for 204 countries from 1990 to 2019 were calculated. We also assessed the role of changes in exposure, population size, age, and type 2 diabetes incidence in the observed trend in PM2·5-attributable type 2 diabetes burden. All estimates are presented with 95% uncertainty intervals. Findings: In 2019, approximately a fifth of the global burden of type 2 diabetes was attributable to PM2·5 exposure, with an estimated 3·78 (95% uncertainty interval 2·68–4·83) deaths per 100 000 population and 167 (117–223) disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) per 100 000 population. Approximately 13·4% (9·49–17·5) of deaths and 13·6% (9·73–17·9) of DALYs due to type 2 diabetes were contributed by ambient PM2·5, and 6·50% (4·22–9·53) of deaths and 5·92% (3·81–8·64) of DALYs by household air pollution. High burdens, in terms of numbers as well as rates, were estimated in Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, and South America. Since 1990, the attributable burden has increased by 50%, driven largely by population growth and ageing. Globally, the impact of reductions in household air pollution was largely offset by increased ambient PM2·5. Interpretation: Air pollution is a major risk factor for diabetes. We estimated that about a fifth of the global burden of type 2 diabetes is attributable PM2·5 pollution. Air pollution mitigation therefore might have an essential role in reducing the global disease burden resulting from type 2 diabetes. Funding: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. © 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an Open Access article under the CC BY 4.0 license
Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States; Department of Health Metrics Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States; Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States; Research, Insights, and Innovation, Seattle, WA, United States; Health Effects Institute, Boston, MA, United States; School of Public Health, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States; Department of Juridical and Economic Studies, La Sapienza University, Rome, Italy; Department of Population Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom; Sport Science Department, University of Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain; School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom; Department of Primary Care and Public Health, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom; Mayo Evidence-based Practice Center, Mayo Clinic Foundation for Medical Education and Research, Rochester, MN, United States; John T. Milliken Department of Internal Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, United States; Clinical Epidemiology Center, US Department of Veterans Affairs (VA), St Louis, MO, United States; Health Management and Economics Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Health Economics, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Preventive Medicine and Public Health Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Pars Advanced and Minimally Invasive Medical Manners Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Community and Family Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Research Group in Hospital Management and Health Policies, Universidad de la Costa (University of the Coast), Barranquilla, Colombia; Research Group in Health Economics, University of Cartagena, Cartagena, Colombia; Department of Biomedical Science, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana; Cardiology Department, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania; Department of Anatomy and Embryology, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania; Department of Statistics and Econometrics, Bucharest University of Economic Studies, Bucharest, Romania; Research Center for Evidence Based Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran; Razi Vaccine and Serum Research Institute, Agricultural Research, Education, and Extension Organization (AREEO), Tehran, Iran; Department of Public Health, Birmingham City University, Birmingham, United Kingdom; Public Health and Healthcare Management, Tashkent Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education, Tashkent, Uzbekistan; Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, United States; Department of Hypertension, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland; Polish Mothers' Memorial Hospital Research Institute, Lodz, Poland; Mary MacKillop Institute for Health Research, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Heidelberg Institute of Global Health (HIGH), Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany; T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA, United States; Division of General Internal Medicine, Harvard University, Boston, MA, United States; School of Public Health, Dr. D. Y. Patil University, Mumbai, India; Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia; Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Lorestan University of Medical Sciences, Khorramabad, Iran; Department of Neurology, University Hospital of Dijon, Dijon, France; Dijon Stroke Registry - UFR Sciences Santé, University of Burgundy, Dijon, France; Nuffield Department of Population Health, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom; Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom; Department of Internal Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil; Hubert Department of Global Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States; Butte County Department of Public Health, Chico, CA, United States; Department of Statistical and Computational Genomics, National Institute of Biomedical Genomics, Kalyani, India; Department of Statistics, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, India; Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran; Department of General Surgery and Medical-Surgical Specialties, University of Catania, Catania, Italy; Department of Veterinary Medicine, Islamic Azad University, Kermanshah, Iran; Institute for Medical Information Processing, Biometry, and Epidemiology, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Munich, Germany; Institute of Epidemiology, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Neuherberg, Germany; Division of Clinical Epidemiology and Aging Research, German Cancer Research Center, Heidelberg, Germany; School of Public Health and Health Systems, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada; Al Shifa School of Public Health, Al Shifa Trust Eye Hospital, Rawalpindi, Pakistan; Internal Medicine Department, Hospital Italiano de Buenos Aires (Italian Hospital of Buenos Aires), Buenos Aires, Argentina; Board of Directors, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Argentine Society of Medicine, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Department of Neurology, Salvador Zubiran National Institute of Medical Sciences and Nutrition, Mexico City, Mexico; Research Unit on Applied Molecular Biosciences (UCIBIO), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal; Associated Laboratory for Green Chemistry (LAQV), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal; School of Public Health, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong; Department of Community Medicine, Datta Meghe Institute of Medical Sciences, Sawangi, India; Saveetha Medical College, Saveetha University, Chennai, India; Population Research Centre, Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics, Pune, India; Department of Population Studies, Mumbai, India; International Institute for Population Sciences, Mumbai, India; Division of Biomedical Informatics, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul, South Korea; Center for Biomedicine and Community Health, VNU-International School, Hanoi, Viet Nam; Indian Institute of Public Health, Gurugram, India; Public Health Foundation of India, Gurugram, India; Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi, India; Department of Health Metric Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States; Institute for Health Metric and Evaluations, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States; Toxoplasmosis Research Center, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran; Department of Immunology, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran; Molecular and Cell Biology Research Center, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran; Health Research Institute, Al Farabi Kazakh National University, Almaty, Kazakhstan; The School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Department of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia; Center for Nutrition and Health Research, National Institute of Public Health, Cuernavaca, Mexico; Department of Community Medicine, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka; Health Research Section, Nepal Health Research Council, Kathmandu, Nepal; Center of Complexity Sciences, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico City, Mexico; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Zootechnics, Autonomous University of Sinaloa, Culiacán Rosales, Mexico; Development of Research and Technology Center, Ministry of Health and Medical Education, Tehran, Iran; Postgraduate Program in Epidemiology, Federal University of Rio Grande Dosul, Porto Alegre, Brazil; Reference Laboratory of Egyptian Universities-Cairo, Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research, Cairo, Egypt; Multiple Sclerosis Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Non-communicable Diseases Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Hematology, Oncology and Stem Cell Transplantation Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Digestive Diseases Research Institute, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Metabolomics and Genomics Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Sina Trauma and Surgery Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Cancer Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Cancer Biology Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; College of Medicine, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Ardabil University of Medical Science, Ardabil, Iran; Psychiatry Department, Kaiser Permanente, Fontana, CA, United States; School of Health Sciences, A.T. Still University, Mesa, AZ, United States; Institute of Public Health, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin (Charité Medical University Berlin), Berlin, Germany; Institute of Gerontology, National Academy of Medical Sciences of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine; School of Public Health, Qazvin University of Medical Sciences, Qazvin, Iran; Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom; Family Medicine Research Center, Ministry of Health, Hail, Saudi Arabia; Hudson College of Public Health, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, United States; Department of Health and Social Affairs, Government of the Federated States of Micronesia, Palikir, Federated States of Micronesia; Department of Epidemiology, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai City, China; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, United States; Centre for Non-communicable Diseases and Nutrition, BRAC University, Dhaka, Bangladesh; Department of Quantitative Economics, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands; Department of Family and Community Medicine, Arabian Gulf University, Manama, Bahrain; School of Health and Environmental Studies, Hamdan Bin Mohammed Smart University, Dubai, United Arab Emirates; Medical School, University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia; Department of Neurology, Sir Charles Gairdner Hospital, Perth, WA, Australia; Department of Healthcare Management, Maragheh University of Medical Sciences, Maragheh, Iran; Department of Nutrition and Food Sciences, Maragheh University of Medical Sciences, Maragheh, Iran; Department of Primary and Interdisciplinary Care, University Hospital Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium; Department of Public Health, Mizan-Tepi University, Mizan Teferi, Ethiopia; Center for Environmental and Respiratory Health Research, University of Oulu, Oulu, Finland; Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Austin, Austin, TX, United States; Department of Pharmacology, Bangladesh Industrial Gases Limited, Tangail, Bangladesh; College of Science and Engineering, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Doha, Qatar; Tabriz, Iran; Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Guilan University of Medical Sciences, Rasht, Iran; Institute of Advanced Manufacturing Technologies, Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation; Institute of Comparative Economic Studies, Hosei University, Tokyo, Japan; Department of Community Medicine, Dr Baba Saheb Ambedkar Medical College & Hospital, Delhi, India; Department of Community Medicine, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India; Institute of Molecular and Clinical Ophthalmology Basel, Basel, Switzerland; Department of Ophthalmology, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany; Department of Family Medicine and Public Health, University of Opole, Opole, Poland; Environmental Health Department, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran; Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran; Department of Public Health, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Health Services Academy, Islamabad, Pakistan; Department of Population Science, Jatiya Kabi Kazi Nazrul Islam University, Mymensingh, Bangladesh; Faculty of Health and Wellbeing, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, United Kingdom; College of Arts and Sciences, Ohio University, Zanesville, OH, United States; National Hepatology and Tropical Medicine Research Institute, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt; School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Xiamen University Malaysia, Sepang, Malaysia; Department of Nutrition, Simmons University, Boston, MA, United States; School of Health Sciences, Kristiania University College, Oslo, Norway; Department of Global Community Health and Behavioral Sciences, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, United States; Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, University College London, London, United Kingdom; Department of Public Health, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland; School of Public Health, The University of Queensland, Herston, QLD, Australia; Jakarta, Indonesia; Department of Internal and Pulmonary Medicine, Sheri Kashmir Institute of Medical Sciences, Srinagar, India; Biomedical Research Networking Center for Mental Health Network (CIBERSAM), San Juan de Dios Sanitary Park, Sant Boi de Llobregat, Spain; Catalan Institution for Research and Advanced Studies (ICREA), Barcelona, Spain; Department of Demography, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada; Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada; University of Environment and Sustainable Development, Somanya, Ghana; International Society Doctors for the Environment, Arezzo, Italy; Department of Health Sciences, University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom; Department of Environmental Health Engineering, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran; Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Wellcome Trust Asia Programme, Hanoi, Viet Nam; Department of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; Department of Medicine and Therapeutics, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong; School of Public Health, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel; Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences and General Hospital, Guangzhou, China; Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital, Southern University of Science and Technology, Guangzhou, China; Institute of Nutritional Sciences, Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany; Competence Cluster for Nutrition and Cardiovascular Health (NutriCARD), Jena, Germany; Grants, Innovation and Product Development Unit, South African Medical Research Council, Cape Town, South Africa; Cochrane South Africa, South African Medical Research Council, Cape Town, South Africa; Department of Clinical Physiology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal; Environmental Health Research Center, Kurdistan University of Medical Sciences, Sanandaj, Iran; Non-communicable Disease Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran; Institute for Social Science Research, The University of Queensland, Indooroopilly, QLD, Australia; Doheny Eye Institute, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States; Faculty of Public Health, Universitas Airlangga (Airlangga University), Surabaya, Indonesia; Indonesian Public Health Association, Surabaya, Indonesia; Department of Pharmacy, Wollo University, Dessie, Ethiopia; Department of Environmental Health, Wollo University, Dessie, Ethiopia; Forensic Medicine Division, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam, Saudi Arabia; Clinical Microbiology and Parasitology Unit, Dr. Zora Profozic Polyclinic, Zagreb, Croatia; University Centre Varazdin, University North, Varazdin, Croatia; Center for Innovation in Medical Education, Pomeranian Medical University, Szczecin, Poland; Department of Propedeutics of Internal Diseases & Arterial Hypertension, Pomeranian Medical University, Szczecin, Poland; Pacific Institute for Research & Evaluation, Calverton, MD, United States; School of Public Health, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia; Global Institute of Public Health, Ananthapuri Hospitals and Research Institute, Trivandrum, India; Women's Social and Health Studies Foundation, Trivandrum, India; Internal Medicine Programme, Kyrgyz State Medical Academy, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan; Department of Atherosclerosis and Coronary Heart Disease, National Center of Cardiology and Internal Disease, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan; Health Systems and Policy Research Unit, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria; Department of Health Care Management, Technical University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany; Department of Diabetology, Madras Diabetes Research Foundation, Chennai, India; Department of Diabeteology, Dr. Mohan's Diabetes Specialities Centre, Chennai, India; Clinical Epidemiology and Public Health Research Unit, Burlo Garofolo Institute for Maternal and Child Health, Trieste, Italy; Computer, Electrical, and Mathematical Sciences and Engineering Division, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, Saudi Arabia; Federal Institute for Population Research, Wiesbaden, Germany; Center for Population and Health, Wiesbaden, Germany; Department of Endocrinology & Metabolism, Institute of Post-Graduate Medical Education and Research, Seth Sukhlal Karnani Memorial Hospital, Kolkata, India; Department of Pediatric Medicine, The Children's Hospital, The Institute of Child Health, Multan, Pakistan; Department of Pediatrics & Pediatric Pulmonology, Institute of Mother & Child Care, Multan, Pakistan; Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Mekelle University, Mekelle, Ethiopia; Saveetha Dental College, Saveetha Institute of Medical and Technical Sciences (SIMATS), Chennai, India; Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States; Suraj Eye Institute, Nagpur, India; Cardio-Aid, Bucharest, Romania; Public Health Department, Universitas Negeri Semarang (State University of Semarang), Kota Semarang, Indonesia; Graduate Institute of Biomedical Informatics, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan; Centre for Heart Rhythm Disorders, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia; School of Public Health, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia; Translational Health Research Institute, Western Sydney University, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Neurosciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria; Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Nigeria Nsukka, Enugu, Nigeria; Department of Medicine, Autonomous University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain; Department of Nephrology and Hypertension, The Institute for Health Research Foundation, Jiménez Díaz University Hospital, Madrid, Spain; Department of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria; Department of Medicine, University College Hospital, Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria; Department of Respiratory Medicine, Jagadguru Sri Shivarathreeswara Academy of Health Education and Research, Mysore, India; Privatpraxis, Heidelberg, Germany; Department of Medical Humanities and Social Medicine, Kosin University, Busan, South Korea; University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands; School of Economics and Business, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands; Dietary Supplements and Probiotic Research Center, Alborz University of Medical Sciences, Karaj, Iran; College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, United States; School of Nursing and Healthcare Professions, Federation University Australia, Berwick, VIC, Australia; School of Nursing and Midwifery, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Society for Health and Demographic Surveillance, Suri, India; Department of Economics, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany; Research Department, Policy Research Institute, Kathmandu, Nepal; Health and Public Policy Department, Global Center for Research and Development, Kathmandu, Nepal; Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; School of Health, Medical and Applied Sciences, CQ University, Sydney, NSW, Australia; School of Medicine, Western Sydney University, Campbelltown, NSW, Australia; Translational Health Research Institute, Western Sydney University, Campbelltown, NSW, Australia; Faculty of Agrarian Sciences and Environment, University of the Azores, Angra do Heroísmo, Portugal; Department of Clinical Research, Federal University of Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil; Department of Epidemiology, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Sharjah Institute for Medical Research, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates; Applied Biomedical Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran; Biotechnology Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran; Clinical Research Division, Chest Research Foundation, Pune, India; Department of Entomology, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt; Department of Surgery, Marshall University, Huntington, WV, United States; Department of Nutrition and Preventive Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, United States; Department of Health and Society, Faculty of Medicine, University of Applied and Environmental Sciences, Bogota, Colombia; National School of Public Health, Carlos III Health Institute, Madrid, Spain; School of Public Health and Community Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia; The George Institute for Global Health, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Karachi, Pakistan; Centre for Medical Informatics, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom; National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan; Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, Helsinki, Finland; The Cooper Institute, Dallas, TX, United States; Hull York Medical School, University of Hull, Hull City, United Kingdom; Department of Medicine, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain; Carlos III Health Institute, Biomedical Research Networking Center for Mental Health Network (CiberSAM), Madrid, Spain; Pediatric Intensive Care Unit, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Department of Public Health and Community Medicine, Central University of Kerala, Kasaragod, India; Institute of Public Health, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Kraków, Poland; Agency for Health Technology Assessment and Tariff System, Warsaw, Poland; Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore; Department of Life Sciences, University of Management and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan; Pakistan Council for Science and Technology, Ministry of Science and Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan; Velez Sarsfield Hospital, Buenos Aires, Argentina; UKK Institute, Tampere, Finland; Faculty of Medicine and Health Technology, Tampere University, Tampere, Finland; Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy; Occupational Health Unit, Sant'Orsola Malpighi Hospital, Bologna, Italy; Foundation University Medical College, Foundation University Islamabad, Islamabad, Pakistan; School of Population Health and Environmental Sciences, King's College London, London, United Kingdom; NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, Guy's and St. Thomas' Hospital and Kings College London, London, United Kingdom; Department of Diabetes and Metabolic Diseases, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan; Department of Neuropsychopharmacology, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kodaira, Japan; Department of Public Health, Juntendo University, Tokyo, Japan; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China; Maternal and Child Health Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh; School of Public Health, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China; Hubei Province Key Laboratory of Occupational Hazard Identification and Control, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China; School of Population and Public Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada; Research Center for Environmental Determinants of Health, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran; Population Health Research Institute, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
