Nicholas Graetz, Lauren Woyczynski, Katherine F. Wilson, Jason B. Hall, Kalkidan Hassen Abate, Foad Abd-Allah, Oladimeji M. Adebayo, Victor Adekanmbi, Mahdi Afshari, Olufemi Ajumobi, Tomi Akinyemiju, Fares Alahdab, Ziyad Al-Aly, Jacqueline Elizabeth Alcalde Rabanal, Mehran Alijanzadeh, Vahid Alipour, Khalid Altirkawi, Mohammadreza Amiresmaili, Nahla Hamed Anber, Catalina Liliana Andrei, Mina Anjomshoa, Carl Abelardo T. Antonio, Jalal Arabloo, Olatunde Aremu, Krishna K. Aryal, Mehran Asadi-Aliabadi, Suleman Atique, Marcel Ausloos, Ashish Awasthi, Beatriz Paulina Ayala Quintanilla, Samad Azari, Alaa Badawi, Joseph Adel Mattar Banoub, Suzanne Lyn Barker-Collo, Anthony Barnett, Neeraj Bedi, Derrick A. Bennett, Natalia V. Bhattacharjee, Krittika Bhattacharyya, Suraj Bhattarai, Zulfiqar A. Bhutta, Ali Bijani, Boris Bikbov, Gabrielle Britton, Roy Burstein, Zahid A. Butt, Rosario Cárdenas, Félix Carvalho, Carlos A. Castañeda-Orjuela, Franz Castro, Ester Cerin, Jung-Chen Chang, Michael L. Collison, Cyrus Cooper, Michael A. Cork, Farah Daoud, Rajat Das Gupta, Nicole Davis Weaver, Jan-Walter De Neve, Kebede Deribe, Beruk Berhanu Desalegn, Aniruddha Deshpande, Melaku Desta, Meghnath Dhimal, Daniel Diaz, Mesfin Tadese Dinberu, Shirin Djalalinia, Manisha Dubey, Eleonora Dubljanin, Andre R. Durães, Laura Dwyer-Lindgren, Lucas Earl, Mohammad Ebrahimi Kalan, Ziad El-Khatib, Babak Eshrati, Mahbobeh Faramarzi, Mohammad Fareed, Andre Faro, Seyed-Mohammad Fereshtehnejad, Eduarda Fernandes, Irina Filip, Florian Fischer, Takeshi Fukumoto, Jose A. García, Paramjit Singh Gill, Tiffany K. Gill, Philimon N. Gona, Sameer Vali Gopalani, Ayman Grada, Yuming Guo, Rajeev Gupta, Vipin Gupta, Arvin Haj-Mirzaian, Arya Haj-Mirzaian, Randah R. Hamadeh, Samer Hamidi, Mehedi Hasan, Hamid Yimam Hassen, Delia Hendrie, Andualem Henok, Nathaniel J. Henry, Bernardo Hernández Prado, Claudiu Herteliu, Michael K. Hole, Naznin Hossain, Mehdi Hosseinzadeh, Guoqing Hu, Olayinka Stephen Ilesanmi, Seyed Sina Naghibi Irvani, Sheikh Mohammed Shariful Islam, Neda Izadi, Mihajlo Jakovljevic, Ravi Prakash Jha, John S. Ji, Jost B. Jonas, Zahra Jorjoran Shushtari, Jacek Jerzy Jozwiak, Tanuj Kanchan, Amir Kasaeian, Ali Kazemi Karyani, Peter Njenga Keiyoro, Chandrasekharan Nair Kesavachandran, Yousef Saleh Khader, Morteza Abdullatif Khafaie, Ejaz Ahmad Khan, Mona M. Khater, Aliasghar A. Kiadaliri, Daniel N. Kiirithio, Yun Jin Kim, Ruth W. Kimokoti, Damaris K. Kinyoki, Adnan Kisa, Soewarta Kosen, Ai Koyanagi, Kewal Krishan, Barthelemy Kuate Defo, Manasi Kumar, Pushpendra Kumar, Faris Hasan Lami, Paul H. Lee, Aubrey J. Levine, Shanshan Li, Yu Liao, Lee-Ling Lim, Stefan Listl, Jaifred Christian F. Lopez, Marek Majdan, Reza Majdzadeh, Azeem Majeed, Reza Malekzadeh, Mohammad Ali Mansournia, Francisco Rogerlândio Martins-Melo, Anthony Masaka, Benjamin Ballard Massenburg, Benjamin K. Mayala, Kala M. Mehta, Walter Mendoza, George A. Mensah, Tuomo J. Meretoja, Tomislav Mestrovic, Ted R. Miller, G.K. Mini, Erkin M. Mirrakhimov, Babak Moazen, Dara K. Mohammad, Aso Mohammad Darwesh, Shafiu Mohammed, Farnam Mohebi, Ali H. Mokdad, Lorenzo Monasta, Yoshan Moodley, Mahmood Moosazadeh, Ghobad Moradi, Maziar Moradi-Lakeh, Paula Moraga, Lidia Morawska, Shane Douglas Morrison, Jonathan F. Mosser, Seyyed Meysam Mousavi, Christopher J. L. Murray, Ghulam Mustafa, Azin Nahvijou, Farid Najafi, Vinay Nangia, Duduzile Edith Ndwandwe, Ionut Negoi, Ruxandra Irina Negoi, Josephine W. Ngunjiri, Cuong Tat Nguyen, Long Hoang Nguyen, Dina Nur Anggraini Ningrum, Jean Jacques Noubiap, Malihe Nourollahpour Shiadeh, Peter S. Nyasulu, Felix Akpojene Ogbo, Andrew T. Olagunju, Bolajoko Olubukunola Olusanya, Jacob Olusegun Olusanya, Obinna E. Onwujekwe, Doris D. V. Ortega-Altamirano, Eduardo Ortiz-Panozo, Simon Øverland, P.A. Mahesh, Adrian Pana, Songhomitra Panda-Jonas, Sanghamitra Pati, George C. Patton, Norberto Perico, David M. Pigott, Meghdad Pirsaheb, Maarten J. Postma, Akram Pourshams, Swayam Prakash, Parul Puri, Mostafa Qorbani, Amir Radfar, Fakher Rahim, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar, Mohammad Hifz Ur Rahman, Fatemeh Rajati, Chhabi Lal Ranabhat, David Laith Rawaf, Salman Rawaf, Robert C. Reiner, Giuseppe Remuzzi, Andre M. N. Renzaho, Satar Rezaei, Aziz Rezapour, Carlos Rios-González, Leonardo Roever, Luca Ronfani, Gholamreza Roshandel, Ali Rostami, Enrico Rubagotti, Nafis Sadat, Ehsan Sadeghi, Yahya Safari, Rajesh Sagar, Nasir Salam, Payman Salamati, Yahya Salimi, Hamideh Salimzadeh, Abdallah M. Samy, Juan Sanabria, Milena M. Santric Milicevic, Benn Sartorius, Brijesh Sathian, Arundhati R. Sawant, Lauren E. Schaeffer, Megan F. Schipp, David C. Schwebel, Anbissa Muleta Senbeta, Sadaf G. Sepanlou, Masood Ali Shaikh, Mehran Shams-Beyranvand, Morteza Shamsizadeh, Kiomars Sharafi, Rajesh Sharma, Jun She, Aziz Sheikh, Mika Shigematsu, Soraya Siabani, Dayane Gabriele Alves Silveira, Jasvinder A. Singh, Dhirendra Narain Sinha, Vegard Skirbekk, Amber Sligar, Badr Hasan Sobaih, Moslem Soofi, Joan B. Soriano, Ireneous N. Soyiri, Chandrashekhar T. Sreeramareddy, Agus Sudaryanto, Muawiyyah Babale Sufiyan, Ipsita Sutradhar, Pn Sylaja, Rafael Tabarés-Seisdedos, Birkneh Tilahun Tadesse, Mohamad-Hani Temsah, Abdullah Sulieman Terkawi, Belay Tessema, Zemenu Tadesse Tessema, Kavumpurathu Raman Thankappan, Roman Topor-Madry, Marcos Roberto Tovani-Palone, Bach Xuan Tran, Lorainne Tudor Car, Irfan Ullah, Olalekan A. Uthman, Pascual R. Valdez, Yousef Veisani, Francesco S. Violante, Vasily Vlassov, Sebastian Vollmer, Giang Thu Vu, Yasir Waheed, Yuan-Pang Wang, John C. Wilkinson, Andrea Sylvia Winkler, Charles D. A. Wolfe, Tomohide Yamada, Alex Yeshaneh, Paul Yip, Engida Yisma, Naohiro Yonemoto, Mustafa Z. Younis, Mahmoud Yousefifard, Chuanhua Yu, Sojib Bin Zaman, Jianrong Zhang, Yunquan Zhang, Sanjay Zodpey, Emmanuela Gakidou, Simon I. Hay
Educational attainment is an important social determinant of maternal, newborn, and child health1–3. As a tool for promoting gender equity, it has gained increasing traction in popular media, international aid strategies, and global agenda-setting4–6. The global health agenda is increasingly focused on evidence of precision public health, which illustrates the subnational distribution of disease and illness7,8; however, an agenda focused on future equity must integrate comparable evidence on the distribution of social determinants of health9–11. Here we expand on the available precision SDG evidence by estimating the subnational distribution of educational attainment, including the proportions of individuals who have completed key levels of schooling, across all low- and middle-income countries from 2000 to 2017. Previous analyses have focused on geographical disparities in average attainment across Africa or for specific countries, but—to our knowledge—no analysis has examined the subnational proportions of individuals who completed specific levels of education across all low- and middle-income countries12–14. By geolocating subnational data for more than 184 million person-years across 528 data sources, we precisely identify inequalities across geography as well as within populations. © 2019, The Author(s).
Department of Population and Family Health, Jimma University, Jimma, Ethiopia; Department of Neurology, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt; Department of Medicine, University College Hospital, Ibadan, Nigeria; School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, United Kingdom; Department of Community Medicine, Zabol University of Medical Sciences, Zabol, Iran; School of Community Health Sciences, University of Nevada, Reno, NV, United States; National Malaria Elimination Program, Federal Ministry of Health, Abuja, Nigeria; Duke Global Health Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States; Department of Population Health Sciences, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States; Evidence Based Practice Center, Mayo Clinic Foundation for Medical Education and Research, Rochester, MN, United States; Internal Medicine Department, Washington University in St Louis, St Louis, MO, United States; Clinical Epidemiology Center, VA Saint Louis Health Care System, Department of Veterans Affairs, St Louis, MO, United States; Center for Health Systems Research, National Institute of Public Health, Cuernavaca, Mexico; Qazvin University of Medical Sciences, Qazvin, Iran; Health Management and Economics Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Department of Health Management, Policy and Economics, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran; Faculty of Medicine, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt; Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania; Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Rafsanjan University of Medical Sciences, Rafsanjan, Iran; Department of Health Policy and Administration, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila, Philippines; Department of Applied Social Sciences, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong; School of Health Sciences, Birmingham City University, Birmingham, United Kingdom; Monitoring Evaluation and Operational Research Project, ABT Associates Nepal, Lalitpur, Nepal; Preventive Medicine and Public Health Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Health Informatics, University of Ha’il, Ha’il, Saudi Arabia; Department of Statistics and Econometrics, Bucharest University of Economic Studies, Bucharest, Romania; Indian Institute of Public Health, Public Health Foundation of India, Gurugram, India; The Judith Lumley Centre, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; General Office for Research and Technological Transfer, Peruvian National Institute of Health, Lima, Peru; Public Health Risk Sciences Division, Public Health Agency of Canada, Toronto, ON, Canada; Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada; Faculty of Medicine, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt; School of Psychology, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand; Mary MacKillop Institute for Health Research, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Department of Community Medicine, Gandhi Medical College Bhopal, Bhopal, India; Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia; Nuffield Department of Population Health, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom; Department of Statistical and Computational Genomics, National Institute of Biomedical Genomics, Kalyani, India; Department of Statistics, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, India; Department of Global Health, Global Institute for Interdisciplinary Studies, Kathmandu, Nepal; Centre for Global Child Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada; Centre of Excellence in Women and Child Health, Aga Khan University, Karachi, Pakistan; Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran; Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, Ranica, Italy; Center for Neuroscience, Instituto de Investigaciones Científicas y Servicios de Alta Tecnología (INDICASAT AIP), Panama; School of Public Health and Health Systems, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada; Al Shifa School of Public Health, Al Shifa Trust Eye Hospital, Rawalpindi, Pakistan; Department of Population and Health, Metropolitan Autonomous University, Mexico City, Mexico; Institute of Public Health, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal; Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal; Colombian National Health Observatory, National Institute of Health, Bogota, Colombia; Epidemiology and Public Health Evaluation Group, National University of Colombia, Bogota, Colombia; Gorgas Memorial Institute for Health Studies, Panama, Panama; School of Public Health, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China; College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan; Medical Research Council Lifecourse Epidemiology Unit, University of Southampton, Southampton, United Kingdom; Department of Rheumatology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, United States; James P. Grant School of Public Health, Brac University, Dhaka, Bangladesh; Heidelberg Institute of Global Health, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany; Department of Global Health and Infection, Brighton and Sussex Medical School, Brighton, United Kingdom; School of Public Health, Addis Ababa University, Addis, Ababa, Ethiopia; School of Nutrition, Food Science and Technology, Hawassa University, Hawassa, Ethiopia; Department of Midwifery, Debre Markos University, Debre, Markos, Ethiopia; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Zootechnics, Autonomous University of Sinaloa, Culiacan Rosales, Mexico; Health Research Section, Nepal Health Research Council, Kathmandu, Nepal; Center of Complexity Sciences, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico City, Mexico; Department of Midwifery, Debre Berhan University, Debre Berhan, Ethiopia; Deputy of Research and Technology, Ministry of Health and Medical Education, Tehran, Iran; United Nations World Food Programme, New Delhi, India; Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia; Department of Internal Medicine, Bahia School of Medicine and Public Health, Salvador, Brazil; Medical Board, Roberto Santos General Hospital, Salvador, Brazil; Department of Health Metrics Sciences, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States; Epidemiology Department, Florida International University, Miami, FL, United States; Department of Public Health Sciences, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; World Health Programme, Université du Québec en Abitibi-Témiscamingue, Rouyn-Noranda, QC, Canada; Center of Communicable Disease Control, Ministry of Health and Medical Education, Tehran, Iran; School of Public Health, Arak University of Medical Sciences, Arak, Iran; Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran; College of Medicine, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Department of Psychology, Federal University of Sergipe, Sao Cristovao, Brazil; Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Division of Neurology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada; REQUIMTE/LAQV, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal; Psychiatry Department, Kaiser Permanente, Fontana, CA, United States; Department of Health Sciences, A. T. Still University, Mesa, AZ, United States; Department of Population Medicine and Health Services Research, Bielefeld University, Bielefeld, Germany; Department of Dermatology, Kobe University, Kobe, Japan; Gene Expression & Regulation Program, The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, PA, United States; Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz National Institute of Psychiatry, Mexico City, Mexico; Unit of Academic Primary Care, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom; Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia; Nursing and Health Sciences Department, University of Massachusetts Boston, Boston, MA, United States; Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, University of Oklahoma, Oklahoma City, OK, United States; Department of Health and Social Affairs, Government of the Federated States of Micronesia, Palikir, Federated States of Micronesia; School of Medicine, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States; School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China; Academics and Research Department, Rajasthan University of Health Sciences, Jaipur, India; Department of Medicine, Mahatma Gandhi University of Medical Sciences & Technology, Jaipur, India; Department of Anthropology, University of Delhi, Delhi, India; Department of Pharmacology, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Obesity Research Center, Research Institute for Endocrine Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Radiology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, United States; Department of Family and Community Medicine, Arabian Gulf University, Manama, Bahrain; School of Health and Environmental Studies, Hamdan Bin Mohammed Smart University, Dubai, United Arab Emirates; Department of Public Health, Mizan-Tepi University, Tepi, Ethiopia; Unit of Epidemiology and Social Medicine, University Hospital Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium; School of Public Health, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia; Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas Austin, Austin, TX, United States; Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Dhaka Medical College, Dhaka, Bangladesh; Department of Pharmacology, Bangladesh Industrial Gases Limited, Tangail, Bangladesh; Department of Computer Engineering, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran; Computer Science Department, University of Human Development, Sulaimaniyah, Iraq; Department of Epidemiology and Health Statistics, Central South University, Changsha, China; Department of Community Medicine, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria; Research Institute for Endocrine Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition, Deakin University, Burwood, VIC, Australia; Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Department of Epidemiology, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Health Care and Public Health, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russian Federation; Department of Community Medicine, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India; Environmental Research Center, Duke Kunshan University, Kunshan, China; Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, NC, United States; Department of Ophthalmology, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany; Beijing Institute of Ophthalmology, Beijing Tongren Hospital, Beijing, China; Social Determinants of Health Research Center, University of Social Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Family Medicine and Public Health, University of Opole, Opole, Poland; Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Jodhpur, India; Hematology-Oncology and Stem Cell Transplantation Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Pars Advanced and Minimally Invasive Medical Manners Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Research Center for Environmental Determinants of Health, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran; ODeL Campus, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya; CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, Lucknow, India; Department of Public Health, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan; Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran; Epidemiology and Biostatistics Department, Health Services Academy, Islamabad, Pakistan; Department of Medical Parasitology, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt; Clinical Epidemiology Unit, Lund University, Lund, Sweden; Research and Data Solutions, Synotech Consultants, Nairobi, Kenya; School of Medicine, Xiamen University Malaysia, Sepang, Malaysia; Department of Nutrition, Simmons University, Boston, MA, United States; School of Health Sciences, Kristiania University College, Oslo, Norway; Independent Consultant, Jakarta, Indonesia; CIBERSAM, San Juan de Dios Sanitary Park, Sant Boi De Llobregat, Spain; Catalan Institution for Research and Advanced Studies (ICREA), Barcelona, Spain; Department of Anthropology, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India; Department of Social and Preventive Medicine, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada; Department of Demography, University of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya; Division of Psychology and Language Sciences, University College London, London, United Kingdom; International Institute for Population Sciences, Mumbai, India; Department of Community and Family Medicine, University of Baghdad, Baghdad, Iraq; School of Nursing, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong; Department of Medical Statistics and Epidemiology, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China; Alliance for Improving Health Outcomes Inc, Quezon City, Philippines; Department of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; Department of Medicine and Therapeutics, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, China; Department of Dentistry, Radboud University, Nijmegen, Netherlands; Section for Translational Health Economics, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila, Philippines; Department of Public Health, Trnava University, Trnava, Slovakia; Community-Based Participatory-Research Center (CBPR), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Knowledge Utilization Research Center (KURC), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Primary Care and Public Health, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom; Digestive Diseases Research Institute, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Non-communicable Diseases Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Campus Caucaia, Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Ceará, Caucaia, Brazil; Public Health Department, Botho University-Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana; Division of Plastic Surgery, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States; Peru Country Office, United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), Lima, Peru; Center for Translation Research and Implementation Science, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States; Department of Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa; Breast Surgery Unit, Helsinki University Hospital, Helsinki, Finland; University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland; Clinical Microbiology and Parasitology Unit, Dr Zora Profozic Polyclinic, Zagreb, Croatia; University Centre Varazdin, University North, Varazdin, Croatia; Pacific Institute for Research & Evaluation, Calverton, MD, United States; Achutha Menon Centre for Health Science Studies, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, Trivandrum, India; Global Institute of Public Health (GIPH), Ananthapuri Hospitals and Research Centre, Trivandrum, India; Faculty of Internal Medicine, Kyrgyz State Medical Academy, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan; Department of Atherosclerosis and Coronary Heart Disease, National Center of Cardiology and Internal Disease, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan; Institute of Addiction Research (ISFF), Frankfurt University of Applied Sciences, Frankfurt, Germany; Department of Food Technology, College of Agriculture, Salahaddin University-Erbil, Erbil, Iraq; Department of Medicine Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Department of Information Technology, University of Human Development, Sulaimaniyah, Iraq; Health Systems and Policy Research Unit, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria; Non-communicable Diseases Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Iran National Institute of Health Research, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Clinical Epidemiology and Public Health Research Unit, Burlo Garofolo Institute for Maternal and Child Health, Trieste, Italy; Department of Public Health Medicine, University of Kwazulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa; Health Sciences Research Center, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran; Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Kurdistan University of Medical Sciences, Sanandaj, Iran; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Kurdistan University of Medical Sciences, Sanandaj, Iran; Department of Mathematical Sciences, University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom; International Laboratory for Air Quality and Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD, Australia; Department of Surgery, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States; Department of Health Management and Economics, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Health Management Research Center, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Pediatric Medicine, Nishtar Medical University, Multan, Pakistan; Department of Pediatrics & Pediatric Pulmonology, Institute of Mother & Child Care, Multan, Pakistan; Cancer Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Epidemiology & Biostatistics, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran; Suraj Eye Institute, Nagpur, India; Cochrane South Africa, South African Medical Research Council, Cape Town, South Africa; General Surgery, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania; General Surgery, Emergency Hospital of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania; Anatomy and Embryology, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania; Cardiology, Cardio-Aid, Bucharest, Romania; Department of Biological Sciences, University of Embu, Embu, Kenya; Institute for Global Health Innovations, Duy Tan University, Hanoi, Viet Nam; Center of Excellence in Behavioral Medicine, Nguyen Tat Thanh University, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam; Public Health Department, Universitas Negeri Semarang, Kota Semarang, Indonesia; Graduate Institute of Biomedical Informatics, Taipei Medical University, Taipei City, Taiwan; Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran; Faculty of Medicine & Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Cape Town, South Africa; UCIBIO, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Neurosciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, University of Lagos, Lagos, Nigeria; Centre for Healthy Start Initiative, Lagos, Nigeria; Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Nigeria Nsukka, Enugu, Nigeria; Center for Population Health Research, National Institute of Public Health, Cuernavaca, Mexico; School of Health and Welfare, Jönköping University, Jönköping, Sweden; Division of Mental and Physical Health, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Bergen, Norway; Department of Psychosocial Science, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway; Department of Respiratory Medicine, Jagadguru Sri Shivarathreeswara Academy of Health Education and Research, Mysore, India; Health Outcomes, Center for Health Outcomes & Evaluation, Bucharest, Romania; Augenpraxis Jonas, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg, Germany; Regional Medical Research Centre, Indian Council of Medical Research, Bhubaneswar, India; Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Population Health, Murdoch Children’s Research Institute, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, Bergamo, Italy; Department of Economics and Business, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands; University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands; Department of Nephrology, Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow, India; Population Studies, International Institute for Population Sciences, Mumbai, India; Non-communicable Diseases Research Center, Alborz University of Medical Sciences, Karaj, Iran; College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, United States; College of Graduate Health Sciences, A. T. Still University, Mesa, AZ, United States; Thalassemia and Hemoglobinopathy Research Center, Ahvaz Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, Iran; Metabolomics and Genomics Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Sina Trauma and Surgery Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Public Health and Mortality Studies, International Institute for Population Sciences, Mumbai, India; Policy Research Institute, Kathmandu, Nepal; Institute for Poverty Alleviation and International Development, Yonsei University, Wonju, South Korea; WHO Collaborating Centre for Public Health Education and Training, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom; University College London Hospitals, London, United Kingdom; Academic Public Health, Public Health England, London, United Kingdom; Translational Health Research Institute, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW, Australia; School of Social Sciences and Psychology, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW, Australia; Research Directorate, Nihon Gakko University, Fernando De La Mora, Paraguay; Research Direction, Universidad Nacional de Caaguazú, Coronel Oviedo, Paraguay; Department of Clinical Research, Federal University of Uberlândia, Uberlândia, Brazil; Golestan Research Center of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Golestan University of Medical Sciences, Gorgan, Iran; Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine Research Center, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran; Centro de Investigación Palmira, Agrosavia, Palmira, Colombia; Department of Ocean Science and Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, China; Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran; Department of Psychiatry, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India; Department of Pathology, Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Social Development and Health Promotion Research Center, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran; Department of Entomology, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt; Department of Surgery, Marshall University, Huntington, WV, United States; Department of Nutrition and Preventive Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, United States; Institute of Social Medicine, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia; Centre-School of Public Health and Health Management, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia; Faculty of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, United Kingdom; Surgery Department, Hamad Medical Corporation, Doha, Qatar; Faculty of Health & Social Sciences, Bournemouth University, Bournemouth, United Kingdom; University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States; Dr D. Y. Patil University, Pune, India; Department of Psychology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States; Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Jigjiga University, Jigjiga, Ethiopia; Independent Consultant, Karachi, Pakistan; School of Medicine, Dezful University of Medical Sciences, Dezful, Iran; School of Medicine, Alborz University of Medical Sciences, Karaj, Iran; Chronic Diseases (Home Care) Research Center, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran; University School of Management and Entrepreneurship, Delhi Technological University, New Delhi, India; Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Fudan University, Shanghai, China; Centre for Medical Informatics, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom; Division of General Internal Medicine, Harvard University, Boston, MA, United States; National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan; Department of Health Education & Promotion, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran; School of Health, University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Brasília University, Brasília, Brazil; Department of the Health Industrial Complex and Innovation in Health, Federal Ministry of Health, Brasília, Brazil; Department of Epidemiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States; Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States; Department of Epidemiology, School of Preventive Oncology, Patna, India; Department of Epidemiology, Healis Sekhsaria Institute for Public Health, Mumbai, India; Centre for Fertility and Health, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Bergen, Norway; Department of Pediatrics, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Pediatric Department, King Khalid University Hospital, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Hospital Universitario de la Princesa, Autonomous University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Respiratorias (CIBERES), Madrid, Spain; Usher Institute of Population Health Sciences and Informatics, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom; Hull York Medical School, University of Hull, Hull, United Kingdom; Division of Community Medicine, International Medical University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; Department of Nursing, Muhammadiyah University of Surakarta, Kartasura, Indonesia; Department of Public Health, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan; Department of Community Medicine, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria; Neurology Department, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, Trivandrum, India; Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, Trivandrum, India; Department of Medicine, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain; Carlos III Health Institute, Biomedical Research Networking Center for Mental Health Network (CIBERSAM), Madrid, Spain; Department of Pediatrics, Hawassa University, Hawassa, Ethiopia; International Vaccine Institute, Seoul, South Korea; College of Medicine, Alfaisal University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative, and Pain Medicine, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, United States; Department of Anesthesiology, King Farah Medical City, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia; Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia; Department of Public Health and Community Medicine, Central University of Kerala, Kasaragod, India; Faculty of Health Sciences, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Krakow, Poland; The Agency for Health Technology Assessment and Tariff System, Warsaw, Poland; Department of Pathology and Legal Medicine, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil; Department of Health Economics, Hanoi Medical University, Hanoi, Viet Nam; Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore; Gomal Center of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Gomal University, Dera Ismail Khan, Pakistan; TB Culture Laboratory, Mufti Mehmood Memorial Teaching Hospital, Dera Ismail Khan, Pakistan; Division of Health Sciences, University of Warwick, Coventry, United Kingdom; Argentine Society of Medicine, Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Argentina; Velez Sarsfield Hospital, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Psychosocial Injuries Research Center, Ilam University of Medical Sciences, Ilam, Iran; Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy; Occupational Health Unit, Sant’Orsola Malpighi Hospital, Bologna, Italy; Department of Health Care Administration and Economics, National Research University Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russian Federation; Department of Global Health and Population, Harvard University, Boston, MA, United States; Department of Economics, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany; Foundation University Medical College, Foundation University Islamabad, Islamabad, Pakistan; Department of Psychiatry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil; Institute of Health and Society, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Department of Neurology, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany; School of Population Health & Environmental Sciences, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom; NIHR Biomedical Research Centre, Guy’s and St Thomas’ Hospital and Kings College London, London, United Kingdom; Department of Diabetes and Metabolic Diseases, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan; Wolkite University, Wolkite, Ethiopia; Centre for Suicide Research and Prevention, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong; Department of Social Work and Social Administration, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong; School of Allied Health Sciences, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Department of Psychopharmacology, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Tokyo, Japan; Health Economics & Finance, Global Health, Jackson State University, Jackson, MS, United States; School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Peking, China; Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Global Health Institute, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China; Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China; Department of Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia; Maternal and Child Health Division, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh; George Warren Brown School, Washington University in St Louis, St Louis, MO, United States; School of Public Health, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China; Hubei Province Key Laboratory of Occupational Hazard Identification and Control, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China; Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
