Teodorikus Hanpalam, Yety Rochwulaningsih, Wasino, Singgih Tri Sulistiyono, Fitri Amalia Shinta Siwi
This study examines the dynamics of nationalism among former East Timorese refugees in Kupang, East Nusa Tenggara, during 1998–2014. It explores how socio-economic adaptation, identity conflict, and negotiations of belonging unfolded in the aftermath of the 1999 referendum and within the wider context of post-Reformasi Indonesia. Employing a historical method with an interdisciplinary perspective, this research draws on government archives, international reports, newspapers, and in-depth interviews with former refugees, community leaders, government officials, and NGO activists. The analysis is informed by social identity theory, Anderson’s concept of imagined communities, diaspora theory, ethnic boundary-making, and refugee labeling. The findings indicate that refugee nationalism was neither fixed nor singular, but fluid, situational, and continuously renegotiated. Adaptation developed through informal economic strategies, kinship networks, intermarriage, religious participation, and everyday interaction with local communities. At the same time, identity conflict persisted through stigmatization as “refugees” or “new residents,” insecure access to land and public services, unresolved trauma, and fragmented state policies. The study identifies three interrelated forms of nationalism: historical-ideological nationalism, survival nationalism, and hybrid nationalism, particularly among younger generations. These findings reveal the ambivalent character of Indonesian nationalism, which simultaneously articulates inclusion and reproduces exclusion. This study contributes to refugee and nationalism studies by highlighting how marginalized communities negotiate belonging in everyday life and by underlining the need for more inclusive and sustainable integration policies. © 2026, Universitas Negeri Semarang. All rights reserved.
Universitas Diponegoro, Indonesia; Universitas Negeri Semarang, Indonesia; University of Sydney, Australia
